OECD overview
07.10.2021
Education in Eastern Europe and Central Asia[1]
This report, jointly developed by the OECD and UNICEF, analyzes PISA data in detail in order to identify the strengths, challenges and unique features of education systems in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The data of the OECD Program on International Student Assessment (PISA), the conclusions of the policy of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) by country and other international studies are used. The results of the EECA countries are also compared with world standards. The Eastern Europe and Central Asia (EECA) region is undergoing rapid economic, social and political changes. Economic inequality, measured by the Gini coefficient[2], remains particularly high and is growing in many countries.
An informed and qualified population is a critical component of a dynamic economy and inclusive, cohesive societies. Many EECA countries have participated in PISA[3] since its inception in 2000, and ten countries in the region did so in 2018, which is by far the widest participation.
The PISA 2018 results show that overall results in the region are improving. Nevertheless, the indicators in the EECA countries are generally lower than in the OECD countries. The average reading score in EECA, the main area assessed in PISA 2018, was 421 points compared to 487 in OECD countries. Achievements in the region also vary greatly: Georgia scored 380 points in reading, and Croatia - 479 points.
Most of them have moved from centralized and planned societies to market ones, and economic development, measured by GDP per capita, has increased. The leaders of regional growth are Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania, which have also joined the European Union.
Other countries, such as Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, show less consistent development from year to year, but still demonstrate positive economic progress. Despite the overall economic growth in the region, the EECA countries still face a number of common challenges.
Economic inequality, as measured by the Gini coefficient, remains particularly high in Georgia and Romania, higher than the OECD average, and growing in Bulgaria and Turkey.
EECA countries have more students from socially and economically disadvantaged families compared to OECD countries. In the EECA countries, the average GDP per capita in 2018 was USD 20,839 at purchasing power parity (PPP) compared to the OECD average of USD 44,994.
The EECA region is vast and includes many communities from small rural villages to large urban towns. On average, the proportion of students attending school in rural communities (defined as having a population of 3,000 or less) is relatively higher in the EECA region (15% compared to 9% in the OECD), but in some countries this figure is much higher. Moldova (47%), Georgia and Kazakhstan (both 30%) are among the three of the four most rural countries participating in PISA. Studies have shown that rural schools can face a number of challenges, from infrastructure to human resources.
The differences at the country level are quite large. While Kazakhstan and Moldova have coverage indices above 90%, Baku (Azerbaijan) has a coverage index of 46%, which is the lowest among all PISA member countries and reflects a relatively low exit age.
At the international level, countries differ depending on when students are selected in different fields. While in some systems, for example in Austria, the sorting of students begins after primary education.
In the EECA region, 28% of upper secondary school students are enrolled in a vocational training program (compared to 21% in OECD countries), but the size and nature of professional sectors vary greatly by country.
Although there are almost no students enrolled in vocational training programs in Baku, Georgia and Moldova, 49% of students in Bulgaria and 68% of students in Croatia are enrolled in vocational training programs in high school.
In the last decade, the countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia (EECA) have taken important measures to improve school practices and results. These efforts include the development of modern assessment systems in schools and a focus on improving technology.
An important comprehensive problem is that the quality of schools in the region is unequal and unfair. In some EECA countries, students, especially in the upper secondary school, are divided according to their academic performance, which is closely related to their socio-economic situation.
The grouping of students in high school is largely based on academic criteria. PISA 2018 data show that EECA countries, compared with OECD countries, are more academically selective in the allocation of students to upper secondary school. On average, 61% of students in EECA countries attend upper secondary school, where a student's academic performance is always taken into account when applying to school, compared with 45% in OECD countries.
In Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Turkey, more than 80% of high school students are selected based on their academic performance, which is one of the highest rates in all PISA participating countries. At the same time, in Georgia and Ukraine, less than 40% of students attend schools where academic performance is taken into account when enrolling in school.
Numerous OECD surveys have noted that a disproportionately large proportion of students in some EECA countries apply for admission to high schools, which are considered the most elite. In addition to the highest enrollment, these schools are often equipped with the latest technology and have the most qualified staff. Examples include Anatolian schools in Turkey and math and foreign language schools in Bulgaria.
In general, in EECA countries, students with high and low achievements are equally isolated, which implies that all students undergo the same academic selection procedures. The exception is students from Moldova and Kazakhstan. Students with high scores in these countries are more likely to be grouped together, which suggests a small number of elite schools with selection, such as Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools in Kazakhstan. Some countries in the region have taken measures to increase the value of all upper secondary education programs, especially in vocational training programs. In 2005, Romania introduced a Comprehensive National Qualifications Framework (NQF), which recognizes specific professional qualifications, which helps vocational school students find suitable jobs.
Providing more flexibility can also help ensure the value of all paths. For example, in Croatia, a national vocational training program was developed in 2018, which also allows students to flexibly spend 30% of their time on elective modules (CEDEFOP, 2020 [8]), which allows students to acquire additional skills and prevents them from falling into a trap on their trajectories.
The countries of the region are taking a number of measures to improve fairness and equality in the selection of students. One set of measures is related to the selection tools.
Many EECA countries rely heavily on exams when selecting students, which can create a fairer process. However, UNICEF-OECD surveys have shown that these exams usually assess large amounts of detailed knowledge, which, given the relatively lower level of classroom time, can contribute to students seeking unfair private educational opportunities. Bulgaria and Turkey are in the process of improving the alignment of their exams with the newly introduced curricula, so they evaluate a wider range of skills instead of a narrower set of facts.
In order to better understand the issue of school resources, PISA 2018 interviewed school principals regarding whether the lack or inadequacy of basic educational resources hinders learning in their schools. These key resources are defined here as:
School principals in Baku (Azerbaijan), Croatia, Georgia and Kazakhstan were more likely to report that lack or inadequacy of physical infrastructure hindered learning.
In Ukraine, school principals more often reported that the lack of educational materials hindered learning.
As for human resources, there are small differences between EECA countries, and the overall level of concern is similar to the OECD average. This finding is consistent with other PISA data showing a relatively high level of certified teachers and teachers with a degree.
The relationship between study time and academic performance is complex. In the EECA countries, the total average time spent in school is about 2 hours lower than the OECD average of 27.5 hours of regular lessons per week. At the subject level, the greatest difference is observed in foreign language lessons (on average 0.7 hours less per week, or 24% less, compared to the OECD average).
Regional differences were also the largest in foreign language lessons: Bulgaria had an average of 4.2 hours per week compared to 2.2 hours in Kazakhstan.
Less time to study during regular school hours may be due to several factors. Inadequate infrastructure, especially in densely populated areas, encourages some EECA countries to often use multi-shift schools, where separate groups of students attend school in the same building at different times during the same day.
In Croatia, about 35% of schools work at least two shifts. In 2018, more than 6% of students in Kazakhstan attended three-shift schools.
In some countries, the duration of compulsory education is set at a relatively low level. For example, in Moldova and Ukraine, the duration of junior high school classes is 45 minutes, and the duration of the school year is approximately 35 weeks. Students in these countries receive more than 100 hours of training per year less than the OECD average.
Regarding extracurricular activities, 68% of students in EECA countries attend schools offering additional lessons in the language of instruction, compared with 46% of students in OECD countries.
Ensuring sufficient study time during school is vital to support student learning and equality of opportunity. Countries can change the study time during regular school hours by considering several aspects of schooling, including:
In the EECA countries, the need to increase the study time during school hours is critical, since the current low levels may contribute to an uneven distribution of study time outside of school.
Kazakhstan is trying to reduce the number of multi-shift schools so that school hours are not limited to the need to share premises. Similarly, a World Bank-funded project in Croatia aimed to build new schools and reduce the number of multi-shift schools.
Student absenteeism is usually understood as absence from school without a valid reason. Students in EECA countries are more likely to skip classes than students in OECD countries. In 2018, 60% of students from EECA countries reported that they skipped classes, compared with the OECD average (33%). In Georgia, 80% indicated absenteeism, which is the highest rate among all countries participating in PISA (Korea has the lowest rate - 3%). Only Croatia, the country with the highest rates in the region, had a lower absenteeism rate than the OECD average.
Creating data collection and analysis tools can help identify student absenteeism and understand trends in absenteeism. Georgia is an example of a country that has made tremendous progress in collecting relevant data and is in the process of making its data more accessible. In 2012, the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports of Georgia (MoESCS) developed its National Education Management Information System (EMIS). Georgia's EMIS contains all education data, including student attendance, and schools are constantly entering new data into EMIS through an internal portal called E-School. Research shows that teachers are one of the most important factors affecting student performance. Teaching is one of the most important aspects of the education system and can significantly affect the learning of students. In the EECA region, the teaching profession is influenced by several factors, including the relatively elderly age of teachers and lower wages compared to international standards.
Teachers in the EECA region still rely heavily on traditional pedagogy, for example, giving lectures to students and asking them to memorize information. Research shows that traditional methods are not suitable for the development of some important skills and competencies. In particular, international research shows that active, student-centered approaches can better help students develop so-called 21st century competencies, such as creativity, critical thinking, collaborative problem solving and communication.
Some teacher behaviors, which are more common in the EECA region, may hinder student learning. PISA 2018 asked school principals to report on the extent to which students' learning in their schools is being hindered:
Kazakhstan reported the highest rates of such concern among all PISA participating countries - 40% of students attend schools where principals believe that learning is very difficult due to teacher absenteeism (OECD average of 3%), and 44% attend schools where teachers are poorly prepared for classes (OECD average of 2%). These results can be explained in part by the difficulty of efficiently deploying teachers across the vast Kazakhstani school network and the lack of quality control in the system.
Teacher standards can help establish the desired teaching methods. Standards are an effective way to align teachers' policies and practices. Teacher standards describe what teachers should know and be able to do, including a description of the desired level of academic performance.
Some EECA countries have created national standards to help guide the profession. In general, these standards positively reflect key pedagogical knowledge and skills and highlight important practices such as individualized and adaptive learning.
Azerbaijan and Croatia do not yet have comprehensive modern teaching standards. Belarus relies on professional characteristics that are more similar to job descriptions than clear expectations regarding knowledge and competencies that teachers should demonstrate. The development of modern multidimensional standards for teachers in these countries can contribute to a common understanding of what good teaching is and what methods teachers should use in the classroom.
Professional codes of conduct can complement teacher standards. An increasing number of countries have developed a professional code of conduct for teachers that complements their teacher standards. Codes of conduct help to understand what these expectations mean in everyday practice, and also set expectations for the honesty and morality of teachers. For example, in Scotland, the code of conduct for teachers requires teachers to submit role models to students and not to participate in dishonest actions. Such recommendations can help raise teachers' awareness of the core values of the profession and how they should behave in unexpected situations.
Teachers in EECA countries have the same probability of obtaining a certificate and a master's degree as teachers in OECD countries. On average, 49% of teachers in the EECA region have a master's degree, which is similar to the OECD average, but there are big differences between countries. While more than 70% of teachers in Bulgaria, Croatia and Ukraine have a master's degree, only 2% - in Belarus, 16% - in Turkey and 20% - in Moldova.
EECA countries should solve problems that may affect the value and quality of ITE, so that the presence of a certain teacher qualification can more reliably indicate good teaching. While there are several approaches that countries can consider, two important reforms are strengthening student enrollment in ITE programs and improving the quality of the programs themselves.
Some countries in the region are taking steps to improve the quality of students entering ITE programs. For example, in 2020, Kazakhstan increased the minimum required score on national entrance exams by 10 points (out of a possible 100) for ITE programs, which is 20 points higher than the minimum score required for admission to higher education in general. Nevertheless, it should be noted that Kazakhstan has a relatively young composition of teachers compared to some countries in the region. Thus, the risk of a shortage of teachers is reduced by increasing the standards of admission to ITE, and more benefits can be obtained from this.
ITE Quality Assurance The results of the UNICEF and OECD policy reviews show that these programmes in EECA countries are often characterized by fragmentation. Weak quality assurance combined in some countries with a sparsely distributed population over a large area has led to the emergence of a large number of ITE suppliers, each with a different level of quality.
In Kazakhstan, for example, ITE is offered at 86 universities and 277 pedagogical colleges, most of the 83 universities in Romania offer some form of ITE. To address issues related to quality assurance of various proposals, several EECA countries have introduced quality assurance mechanisms at several stages of the process.
Two important stages include program accreditation and certification exams.
Program Accreditation - Rigorous accreditation processes aligned with teacher standards give ITE providers a common reference point for building their curricula. In Kazakhstan, ten separat.organizations accredit ITE programs. In Turkey, the Association for Evaluation and Accreditation of Pedagogical Faculty Programs will act as an external accreditation body for ITE and set accreditation requirements.
Certification exams. When properly designed and aligned with national teacher standards, certification exams can act as an important external verification that candidates for teachers, regardless of where they were trained, have the knowledge and competencies necessary to be effective teachers. Currently, only four EECA countries conduct such exams, although Kazakhstan plans to introduce them in 2021.
There are several policy options that EECA countries can consider to facilitate a more reliable assessment of teacher quality. First, the evaluation process and related tools should reinforce a more holistic approach. Many countries in the region, such as Kazakhstan, have made classroom observations mandatory in the certification process, as they are one of the most reliable tools used internationally to evaluate teachers. However, UNICEF and the OECD recommend that such observations be carried out constantly so that teachers can constantly learn about their performance and ways to improve. In Bulgaria, for example, the pedagogical council at the school plays an important role in the regular certification process. Education systems should help teachers keep their skills up to date in line with system-wide goals and expectations. The results of PISA 2018 show that, on average, teachers in the EECA countries participate in professional development at a lower rate compared to international standards. Only teachers in Bulgaria and Croatia participated in professional development at a rate comparable to the OECD average.
EECA countries are taking a number of measures to make professional development more accessible:
Technology can also be a useful tool for expanding access to professional development. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of professional development providers in Bulgaria are now offering digital training.
One of the important methods used by many OECD countries to ensure the quality of professional development is the establishment of strict accreditation procedures for training providers. These procedures help to link learning to the specific knowledge and skills outlined in teacher standards and can help coordinate the offerings of non-government service providers.
Many EECA countries have established standards and accreditation processes.
Conclusion. The countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia clearly strive to strengthen civic participation and increase well-being for all. A highly qualified and knowledgeable population is crucial to achieving these goals, making the creation and maintenance of high-quality and equitable education systems a vital part of regional development efforts. The PISA results show that learning outcomes in the region as a whole have improved, but this improvement has not been fair. While the countries of the region graduate some of the best students in the world, many other students are left behind. [1] https://www.oecd.org/countries/kazakhstan/education-in-eastern-europe-and-central-asia-ebeeb179-en.htm [2] a statistical indicator of the degree of stratification of the society of a given country or region according to any studied feature. [3] (PISA) is a study that evaluates student learning and collects information about the characteristics of students and schools around the world.
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